MIDTERM 2

What is a “problem”?

A problem appears when two different phenomena exist, one of which is real and the other is desired. Problem is the obstacle and difficulty which come across when one tries to reach the desired situation. A problem can be said to be a question and it leads wants and needs. A problem needs to be resolved because it is far different from the expectations and the conditions which are defined as standard.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem
http://leanhealthcareexchange.com/?p=119


What does “method” mean?

Method is the particular way of doing something. It denotes the way to follow in order to reach the wanted result. Method can be bounded to a certain plan so it consists of procedure and technique. A method also needs to be systematic.
When the word “method” is said, the first thing that people imagine is “scientific method”. Process of a scientific method is definite. The steps are: identifying a question, development of a hypothesis, constructing an experiment, and performing the experiment.

http://www.blurtit.com/q984120.html
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_does_scentific_method_mean


What does “methodology” mean?

When we try to understand what methodology means, we see that method is techniques of methodology. Method is a specific word while methodology is a generated declaration of methods, procedure and techniques. Methodology, which is used to analyze information, is a process. It is a strategy used to achieve a goal. Methodologies are supported by methods. They include a set, which is formed from methods, not one type approach. Comparable approaches are used in a methodology.

http://www.blurtit.com/q398322.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology


What does “theory” mean?

A theory is not a guess or a similar thing; it is constructed on facts and logical reasons. It predicts but it definitely needs to be consistent with itself and one another. A theory includes systematic past and future observations and reasoning, it is the explanation of them all. A theory briefly summarizes information and gives new ideas. It can be wrong. Since a theory is testable and includes experimentation, it can be shown to be wrong. A wrong theory is discarded. Although a theory is not certainly proven, it is generally approved by scientists (when it is proven, it becomes a law).
Theories are constructed on hypothesis.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory
http://mwillett.org/atheism/theory.htm


What does “hypothesis” mean?

Hypothesis is an uncertain statement. Sometimes it is defined as an educated guess. It is a prediction or proposition for a problem to solve or explain it. A hypothesis may be wrong. Since a hypothesis already needs to be testable, it can be proven to be true or wrong. If the outcome of the experiment is positive, the hypothesis becomes a theory or a part of another theory. A scientific hypothesis is not something in future, it is something never noticed. When a hypothesis is confirmed, next investigations can be done.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis
http://www.batesville.k12.in.us/Physics/PhyNet/AboutScience/Hypotheses.html


What does “paradigm” mean?

Paradigm can be defined as a model or an example; a theoretical framework. It is accepted in scientific area and includes scientific laws and theories. A paradigm is formed with observations, results of investigations and the question how the experiment is done. Paradigm is the set of beliefs and agreements in science.

http://www.cs.joensuu.fi/~whamalai/skc/paradigm.html


What is “strategy”?

A strategy is the way to achieve mission and vision. Strategy is a long term plan behind all the actions. Risks can be taken and sudden decisions can be given on condition that the strategy will not change because the strategy is extensively considered and planned. It shows the direction and the overall plan. It is at the top of all the actions. A strategy is the main way.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy


What is “plan”?

A plan is a way of a procedure. It is series of steps to be carried out in order to reach a particular outcome or accomplish a goal. A plan is a systematic method of actions.
The plan of a project should be written down so that it can be understood by the people who do not know about the project when they need.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan


What is “control”?

Control is an action taken by management. Everything should be controlled in o process in order to see that all are in accordance with plan. When the actions are checked we have an opportunity to see errors and check them to minimize the separation from standard. Performance is measured by control and efficiency can be tested. Control is done in accordance with the principles for achieving the planned goal. From these definitions we can see that control has a very close link to planning.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_%28management%29


What is “model”?

Model is something that is used as the foundation for a similar idea or process. It helps people to understand the real systems better. A model includes assumptions and certain criteria. In a model concept is determined and details are omitted. All models need information at start and using this info they get input and give output. A model which is a set also shows the requirements of a system. Material models are generally smaller than the one which they are representation of.

http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/models/WhatIsAModel.html


What is “snowball effect”?

Snowball effect expresses a situation which something that seems insignificant gets bigger gradually and starts to absorb everything related to it. After the initial state the progress goes on itself. After a snowball effect, the process may get so bad.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_effect

What is “waterfall diagram”?

A waterfall diagram helps us to understand a process more easily. With a waterfall diagram, stages of the process become measurable and clearer. Relativity of the phases are shown and previously mentioned points can be shown clearly.

http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jonmc/CSE2305/Topics/07.13.SWEng1/html/text.html


What does “validation/validity” mean?

Validation is the act of confirming that a product or service meets the requirements which were aimed. In validation process, a certain criterion is based and the product is considered in respect of it. Validation is the act of giving validity to something. By validation, the parallelism of the planned situation and the real situation is checked.

http://www.blurtit.com/q875830.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validation


What does “significance” mean?

The word significance gives the signal of being important and never to be ignored. It is also about what someone expects. If it matches the criteria one wants, it can be accepted as “significant”. If the validity of something is accepted, there is no chance of it to be insignificant.

http://www.google.com.tr/search?hl=tr&defl=en&q=define:significance&sa=X&oi=glossary_definition&ct=title


What does “reliability” mean?

The word reliability can be used while defining a process which is fixed. When you apply some tests on the system at different times in the same circumstances, if the data you take in result is the same or very close to each other, that system is said to be reliable. Reliability shows the thing performs its expected functions.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability


What does “relevance/relevant” mean?

Something’s relevance to a situation or someone shows how important it to the situation. Something which is relevant has the power to change things and affect decisions. The word relevance shows the connection between information and a matter. Something which is relevant is absolutely significant.

http://www.blurtit.com/q681004.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance


What is an “event”?

Actually event specifies anything that happens in a time and location. The circumstances are definite in an event which is an occurrence. An event is the change in a system in a process. It is a phenomenon which has reasons and consequences. So that something to be an event, some interactions has to occur.

http://www.google.com.tr/search?hl=tr&defl=en&q=define:event&sa=X&oi=glossary_definition&ct=title


What is a “process”?

A process defines a period which includes progress and change in a definite way. It is a routine method which includes steps and is arranged. In business, a process has a particular aim. It is because of a need and organized in different ways. It can be even be in parts which are all own a process. A process should not include unnecessary elements.

http://www.google.com.tr/search?hl=tr&defl=en&q=define:process&sa=X&oi=glossary_definition&ct=title,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process

What is a “life cycle”?

Life cycle can be briefly defined as series of stages in a system. Life cycle is spanning of a life, a product in business life. Since a life cycle of a product includes development, its phases need to be managed. In the life cycle of a product, strategies are needed to be useful.

http://www.google.com.tr/search?hl=tr&defl=en&q=define:Life+cycle&sa=X&oi=glossary_definition&ct=title


What does “iterative” mean?

The word iterative is used to define a process which is repetitive. In an iterative process, development occurs in small steps. Iterative actions create a project which may be cyclical. The aim of these repeated actions which are in the project tasks is to reach to a desired goal.

http://searchsoftwarequality.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid92_gci519105,00.html


What does “sequential” mean?

The meaning of the word sequential comes from the term sequence. In a sequential process, every stage is related to each other. The result of a step is the reason of another one. Sequential actions follow a definite plan with a certain arrangement.

http://www.google.com.tr/search?hl=tr&q=define%3Asequential&meta=


Correlate beautiful vs. Kitsch picture taking exercise with “data collection”, “observation”, “abstraction” and “awareness”.

One should have enough information about the meaning and content of the words beautiful and kitsch to have the beautiful vs. kitsch photograph. This is defined as “data collection”. One should also have enough observation to catch the photograph and he/she should never ignore what is around him/her. This also requires awareness to see, not only to look. To see a beautiful or kitsch image is not enough, too. One should be able to abstract it from what around it to see its own characteristic. I didn’t take a photograph but if I had had a beautiful vs. kitsch photograph, I would have minded these points.

GILBRETHS

Lillian Moller GILBRETH and Frank Bunker GILBRETH worked together on giving special importance to the worker rather than other factors and applying social sciences to industrial management. By “giving special importance” I mean, creating an easy and efficient ambient to work.

The most known study of Gilbreths is time-and-motion study. Time-and-motion study improved methods to get more efficiency from industrial employees and increase the output. Their method created a systematic meaning to identifying and analyzing the number of movements and the time needed to complete the stated mission. Gilbreths publisher three books about the task, which are Motion Study(1911), Fatigue Study(1916) and Applied Motion Study(1917). Gaining maximum economy of effort was viewed and their study provided important tools for the design of modern manufacturing systems.
Frank Bunker Gilbreth also applied motion-picture photography to the study of surgical operations firstly.
Gilbreths pioneered industrial engineering which is now applied to all elements of factory operation.

FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR

Taylor’s innovations in industrial engineering –especially in time and motion study- yielded a profit in productivity and influenced the development of modern industry of almost every country. His time study profession helped him to form “The Principles of Scientific Management” basically. These principles increased productivity in many factories which were carried out. These principles are below:
Rule-of-thumb work methods are replaced with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.
Each employee is scientifically selected, trained, and developed rather than passively to be left to train themselves.
Provide "Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker's discrete task" (Montgomery 1997: 250).
work is divided nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks
Taylor always claimed that production efficiency could be enhanced by elimination of waste time and motion.
He had more than 40 patents and he was definitely a brilliant inventor; he developed high-speed steel and one of his most famous studies involved shıvels. He developed himself as a consulting engineer in management.
Until his retirement, Taylor continued to dedicate to promote the principles of scientific management.

HENRY FAYOL

According to Fayol, who is one of the people who influenced modern concepts of management, management has five primary functions: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. He believed management theories could be developed.
Fayol is known as the father of the modern operational management theory. He developed his concept of administration and discussed the 14 principles of management in detail in his book “General and Industrial Management”. The 14 principles which he exhibited:
Specialization of labour. Specializing encourages continuous improvement in skills and the development of improvements in methods.
Authority. The right to give orders and the power to exact obedience.
Discipline. No slacking, bending of rules. The workers should be obedient and respectful of the organization.
Unity of command. Each employee has one and only one boss.
Unity of direction. A single mind generates a single plan and all play their part in that plan.
Subordination of Individual Interests. When at work, only work things should be pursued or thought about.
Remuneration. Employees receive fair payment for services, not what the company can get away with.
Centralization. Consolidation of management functions. Decisions are made from the top.
Chain of Superiors (line of authority). Formal chain of command running from top to bottom of the organization, like military
Order. All materials and personnel have a prescribed place, and they must remain there.
Equity. Equality of treatment (but not necessarily identical treatment)
Personnel Tenure. Limited turnover of personnel. Lifetime employment for good workers.
Initiative. Thinking out a plan and do what it takes to make it happen.
Esprit de corps. Harmony, cohesion among personnel. It's a great source of strength in the organisation. Fayol stated that for promoting esprit de corps, the principle of unity of command should be observed and the dangers of divide and rule and the abuse of written communication should be avoided.

MAX WEBER

Max Weber was a German political economist and sociologist. He is known as one of the founders of the modern study of the sociology and public administration. In his major works, Weber studies about rationalization in sociology of religion and government.

“The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” is his most famous work and it is thought to be an introduction to Weber’s later works about interaction between different religious ideas and economic behavior. Also his most significant contribution is his “Politics as a Vocation” essay.

Weber states that there are three types of political leadership, authority and domination: legal, charismatic and traditional domination.

ABRAHAM MASLOW

Abraham Maslow is an American psychologist and philosopher who is best known for his self-actualization theory of psychology. Self-acusation theory argues that the primary goal of psychotherapy should be the integration of the self. Maslow was an important contributor in the US to humanistic psychology and known as the father of humanistic psychology. His conceptualization of a “hierarchy of human needs” is also known. He argued that each person has a hierarchy of needs that must be satisfied –from basic physiological requirements tı love, esteem, and self-actualization-.
Maslow’s primary contribution to psychology is “Hierarchy of Needs”. Needs which were contended by Maslow are grouped as:
o Conative needs
o Cognitive needs
o Aesthetic needs
o Neurotic needs (do not exist in the hierarchy but exists in theory)

In the pyramid, the more powerful need is lower and the weaker, distinctly human need is higher.

my preference

If I were one of these people I would be Abraham WASLOW because he doesn’t ignore human apart from the other VIPs. Other people’s works are about getting more money, more productivity etc. in major; on the other hand, Waslow is humanistic.

Division of Labor, Assembly Line, Mass Production

Division of labour is the specialisation of cooperative labour in specific, circumscribed tasks and roles, intended to increase the productivity of labour. Historically the growth of a more and more complex division of labour is closely associated with the growth of total output and trade, the rise of capitalism, and of the complexity of industrialisation processes. Later, the division of labour reached the level of a scientifically-based management practice with the time and motion studies associated with Taylorism.
The productivity gains of the division of labor are important within any type of production process, ranging from pin manufacture to software production to legal practice and medical care.
The division of labor makes trade necessary and is the source of economic interdependence.

The assembly line concept was not "invented" at one time by one person, and no one person is the "father" of it. It has been independently redeveloped throughout history based on logic. Its exponentially larger development at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th occurred among various people over decades, as other aspects of technology allowed. The development of toolpath control via jigs, fixtures, and machine tools (such as the screw-cutting lathe and milling machine) during the 19th century provided the prerequisites by making interchangeable parts a practical reality. Before the 20th century, the way that most manufactured products were made was that a single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product individually by hand, using their skills and such tools as files and knives, and assemble them together into an assembly, making cut-and-try changes in the parts so that they would fit and work together (the so-called English System). The transition to other methods began as creativity and logic took advantage of the opportunities that the aforementioned machining developments presented. Thus, before the modern assembly line took shape, there were prototypical forms in various industries.

Mass production (also called flow production, repetitive flow production, or series production) is the production of large amounts of standardized products on production lines.
It was popularized by Henry Ford in the early 20th century, notably in his Ford Model T.
Mass production typically uses moving tracks or conveyor belts to move partially complete products to workers, who perform simple repetitive tasks to permit very high rates of production per worker, allowing the high-volume manufacture of inexpensive finished goods. Mass production is capital intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery in relation to workers. With fewer labour costs and a faster rate of production, capital is increased while expenditure is decreased. However the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful so the company can get a return on its investment. Machinery for mass production such as robots and machine presses have high installation costs as well. Thus, mass production is ideally suited to serve large, relatively homogenous populations of consumers, whose demand would satisfy the long production runs required by this method of manufacturing. As such, it is not surprising that, given a number of other factors, mass production first became prevalent in the United States.
One of the descriptions of mass production is that the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself, not the training of the worker; rather than having a skilled worker measure every dimension of each part of the product against the plans or the other parts as it is being formed, there are jigs and gauge blocks that are ready at hand to ensure that the part is made to fit this set-up. It has already been checked that the finished part will be to specifications to fit all the other finished parts - and it will be made quicker, with no time spent on finishing the parts to fit one another. This is the specialized capital required for mass production; each workbench is different and each set of tools at each workbench limited to those necessary to make one part. As each of these parts is uniformly and consistently constructed, interchangeability of components is thus another hallmark of mass produced goods.

Use of assembly lines in mass production
Mass production systems are usually organized into assembly lines. The assemblies pass by on a conveyor, or if they are heavy, hung from an overhead monorail.
In a factory for a complex product, rather than one assembly line, there may be many auxiliary assembly lines feeding sub-assemblies (i.e. car engines or seats) to a backbone "main" assembly line. A diagram of a typical mass-production factory looks more like the skeleton of a fish than a single line.

Frederick Winslow Taylor

Frederick Winslow Taylor is a controversial figure in management history. His innovations in industrial engineering, particularly in time and motion studies, paid off in dramatic improvements in productivity. At the same time, he has been credited with destroying the soul of work, of dehumanizing factories, making men into automatons.

“Born in 1856 into a wealthy Philadelphia family, Taylor disappointed his parents by working in a metal products factory, first as a machinist and next as a foreman. Shocked at the factory's inefficiency, and the practice of its skilled workers of purposely working slowly, Taylor proposed solutions that he believed would solve both problems. By studying the time it took each worker to complete a step, and by rearranging equipment, Taylor believed he could discover what an average worker could produce in optimum conditions. The promise of higher wages, he figured, would create added incentive for workers to exceed this "average" level. Taylor's time-and-motion studies offered a path away from the industrial wars of a century ago. Now what was needed was a way to apportion the wealth created by manufacturing enterprises. Taylor's answer sidestepped the class struggle and interest-group politics.
Generally creating enemies wherever he worked, and willing to bend the facts to suit his theories, Taylor's methods paid off, when on the eve of World War I, "Taylorism" became the first big management fad. An extreme version of Taylor's mind-set found its way into the operation of Nazi death camps and communist totalitarianism. The Taylor method prescribed a clockwork world of tasks timed to the hundredth of a minute, of standardized factories, machines, women and men. Naturally, ordinary workers resented having to work faster then they thought was healthy or fair.
It came to be revealed, that in case after case, Taylor and his adherents didn't actually use their time studies as the sole basis for setting normative output. Acknowledging that workers could not sustain peak level performances all day long, they used a margin of error or fudge factor of as much as a third to set a more realistic level. This of course, struck at the credibility that Taylor's system was based on scientific laws.”

Taylor believed that the industrial management of his day was amateurish, that management could be formulated as an academic discipline, and that the best results would come from the partnership between a trained and qualified management and a cooperative and innovative workforce. Each side needed the other, and there was no need for trade unions.
Louis Brandeis, who was an active propagandist of Taylorism (Montgomery 1989: 250), coined the term scientific management in the course of his argument for the Eastern Rate Case, which Taylor used in the title of his monograph The Principles of Scientific Management, published in 1911. His approach is also often referred to, as Taylor's Principles, or frequently disparagingly, as Taylorism. Taylor's scientific management consisted of four principles:

-Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.
-Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather than passively leaving them train themselves.
-Cooperate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically developed methods are being followed.
-Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.

These principles were implemented in many factories, often increasing productivity by a factor of three or more. Henry Ford applied Taylor’s principles in his automobile factories, and families even began to perform their household tasks based on the results of time and motion studies.

Henry Ford

“In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company in Detroit. This event signified a conscious decision on Ford's part to dedicate his life to industrial pursuits. His promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893 gave him enough time and money to devote attention to his personal experiments on internal combustion engines.
These experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of his own self-propelled vehicle-the Quadricycle. The Quadricycle had four wire wheels that looked like heavy bicycle wheels, was steered with a tiller like a boat, and had only two forward speeds with no reverse.
Although Ford was not the first to build a self-propelled vehicle with a gasoline engine, he was, however, one of several automotive pioneers who helped this country become a nation of motorists.”

Henry Ford (July 30, 1863 – April 7, 1947) was the American founder of the Ford Motor Company and father of modern assembly lines used in mass production. His introduction of the Model T automobile revolutionized transportation and American industry. He was a prolific inventor and was awarded 161 U.S. patents. As owner of the Ford Company he became one of the richest and best-known people in the world. He is credited with "Fordism", that is, the mass production of large numbers of inexpensive automobiles using the assembly line, coupled with high wages for his workers. Ford had a global vision, with consumerism as the key to peace. Ford did not believe in accountants; he amassed one of the world's largest fortunes without ever having his company audited under his administration. Henry Ford's intense commitment to lowering costs resulted in many technical and business innovations, including a franchise system that put a dealership in every city in North America, and in major cities on six continents. Ford left most of his vast wealth to the Ford Foundation but arranged for his family to control the company permanently.
In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company, and after his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and money to devote attention to his personal experiments on gasoline engines. These experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of his own self-propelled vehicle named the Ford Quadricycle, which he test-drove on June 4. After various test-drives, Ford brainstormed ways to improve the Quadricycle.[6]
Also in 1896, Ford attended a meeting of Edison executives, where he was introduced to Thomas Edison himself. Edison approved of Ford's automobile experimentation; encouraged by Edison's approval, Ford designed and built a second vehicle, which was completed in 1898.[7] Backed by the capital of Detroit lumber baron William H. Murphy, Ford resigned from Edison and founded the Detroit Automobile Company on August 5, 1899.[8] However, the automobiles produced were of a lower quality and higher price than Ford liked. Ultimately, the company was not successful and was dissolved in January 1901.[9]
Ford went to work building a racer. With the help of C. Harold Wills, he designed, built, and successfully raced a 26 horsepower automobile in October 1901. With that success, Murphy and other stockholders in the Detroit Automobile Company formed the Henry Ford Company on November 30, 1901, with Ford as chief engineer.[10] However, Murphy brought in Henry M. Leland as a consultant. As a result, Ford left the company bearing his name in 1902. With Ford gone, Murphy renamed the company the Cadillac Automobile Company.[11]
Ford once again focused on building a racecar, producing the 80+ horsepower racer "999", and getting Barney Oldfield to drive it to victory in October 1902. Ford also received the backing of an old acquaintance, Alexander Y. Malcomson, a Detroit-area coal dealer.[12] They formed a partnership, "Ford & Malcomson, Ltd." to manufacture automobiles. Ford went to work designing an inexpensive automobile, and the duo leased a factory and contracted with a machine shop owned by John and Horace E. Dodge to supply over $160,000 in parts.[13] Sales were slow, and a crisis arose when the Dodge brothers demanded payment for their first shipment.
In response, Malcomson brought in another group of investors and convinced the Dodge Brothers to accept a portion of the new company.[14] On June 16, 1903,[15] Ford & Malcomson was reincorporated as the Ford Motor Company, with $28,000 capital. The original investors included Ford and Malcomson, the Dodge brothers, Malcomson's uncle John S. Gray, Horace Rackham, and James Couzens. In a newly designed car, Ford gave an exhibition on the ice of Lake St. Clair, driving 1 mile (1.6 km) in 39.4 seconds, setting a new land speed record at 91.3 miles per hour (147.0 km/h). Convinced by this success, the race driver Barney Oldfield, who named this new Ford model "999" in honor of a racing locomotive of the day, took the car around the country, making the Ford brand known throughout the United States. Ford also was one of the early backers of the Indianapolis 500.
Ford astonished the world in 1914 by offering a $5 per day wage, which more than doubled the rate of most of his workers. The move proved extremely profitable; instead of constant turnover of employees, the best mechanics in Detroit flocked to Ford, bringing in their human capital and expertise, raising productivity, and lowering training costs. Ford called it "wage motive." The company's use of vertical integration also proved successful when Ford built a gigantic factory that shipped in raw materials and shipped out finished automobiles.
The Model T was introduced on October 1, 1908. It had many important innovations—such as the steering wheel on the left, which every other company soon copied. The entire engine and transmission were enclosed; the four cylinders were cast in a solid block; the suspension used two semi-elliptic springs.